跳转到内容

多囊卵巢綜合症

维基百科,自由的百科全书
(重定向自多囊性卵巢症候群
多囊卵巢症候群
又称高雄性激素無排卵(Hyperandrogenic anovulation,HA)[1]、斯-李二氏症(Stein–Leventhal syndrome)[2]
超聲波掃描下的多囊卵巢綜合症。
症状月經失調、經血過多多毛症痤疮、骨盆痛、不孕黑棘皮症[3]
併發症2型糖尿病肥胖症阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停心血管疾病情感障礙子宫内膜癌[4]
病程長期[5]
类型症候群荷爾蒙失調遺傳性疾病生殖系統疾病ovarian dysfunction[*]疾病
病因遺傳或環境因素[6][7]
风险因素肥胖症、運動不足、家族病史[8]
診斷方法無排卵、高雄激素卵巢囊腫[4]
鑑別診斷腎上腺增生症甲狀腺機能低下症高泌乳素血症英语hyperprolactinemia[9]
治療減肥、運動[10][11]
藥物避孕药二甲双胍抗雄激素[12]
患病率適產年齡 2% 至 20% 的女性[8][13]
分类和外部资源
醫學專科婦科學
ICD-115A80.1
ICD-9-CM256.4
OMIM184700
MedlinePlus000369
eMedicine256806、​404754
Orphanet3185
[编辑此条目的维基数据]

多囊性卵巢綜合症(英語:Polycystic ovary syndrome,簡稱PCOS),又稱斯-李二氏症Stein-Leventhal syndrome),是女性因為雄性激素上升所導致的症狀[4]。多囊性卵巢的症狀包含月經不規律或是無月經、月經量過多多毛症粉刺、盆腔疼痛、難以受孕黑棘皮症[3]。相關的病症包含第二型糖尿病肥胖症阻塞性睡眠呼吸暫停心血管疾病情感障礙子宮內膜癌[4]

多囊性卵巢會受基因遺傳與環境因素影響[6][7]。其危險因子包含肥胖症、運動量不足或是有家族病史[8]。如果有以下三種症狀中的兩種便可診斷患者有多囊性卵巢:無排卵、雄性激素過高與卵巢囊腫[4]。囊腫可以由超音波影像檢測。其他造成類似症狀的疾病包含先天性腎上腺增生症甲狀腺機能低下症高泌乳素血症英语hyperprolactinemia[9]

多囊性卵巢綜合症目前並無特效藥可以治療[5]。現行治療方式包括減重和運動等生活型態調整[11][10]避孕藥物對於調整經期、抑制多餘的毛髮生長與改善青春痘有所幫助。二甲双胍抗雄性激素可能能夠改善多囊性卵巢綜合症,且針對青春痘和多毛等症狀有一定治療效果[12]。減重或是使用可洛米分、降血糖藥物每福敏則有助於改善不孕的狀況。若以上治療對於病人都沒有效果且病人有生育考量,則可考慮體外人工授精這個選項[14]

多囊性卵巢綜合症是18歲到44歲女性間最常見的內分泌疾病[15]。一般認為,多囊卵巢綜合症的發生率在女性生育年齡期間佔約20%(根據鹿特丹診斷指引,英國為26%、澳洲為17.8%、土耳其為19.9%、伊朗為15.2%[16]。)多囊卵巢綜合症是現今導致不孕的主要原因之一[4]。目前已知最早的多囊卵巢綜合症病例於1721年紀錄於意大利[17]

體徵及症狀

[编辑]

常見的體徵和症狀如下:

原因

[编辑]

多囊卵巢綜合症為一種成因不明的異質性失調。[18][22][23] 有一些證據如: 家族病例、同卵雙胞胎相比異卵雙胞胎在多囊卵巢綜合症的內分泌和代謝之遺傳性特徵上有較高的一致性等,點出多囊性卵巢綜合症可能為遺傳性疾病[7][22][23]。亦有證據表明若胎兒於子宮中暴露於高濃度的雄性激素抗穆氏管荷爾蒙中,隨著年紀增長會提升其患多囊卵巢綜合症的風險。[24]

基因

[编辑]

致病性的基因為體染色體顯性遺傳,在女性身上具有高度的基因外顯性且多變的表現度;這代表小孩有50%的機率從雙親其中一方獲得可能致病的基因片段,如果獲得此基因片段的為女兒,則會出現一定程度上的病徵[23][25][26][27]。 異變基因可能從父母雙方遺傳而來,也可能遺傳給兒女(可能成為帶原者或是早期脫髮或毛髮過多症狀者) [25][27]

表現型:有一部分患者個疾病表現為卵泡膜英语theca of follicle分泌過多的雄性素 [26]。確切的基因影響方式尚未被確認[7][23][28]。在少數的案例,單個基因的突變有可能造成綜合性的突變症狀[29]。目前對該綜合症的發病病理機致的研究指出,多囊卵巢綜合症為複雜的多基因疾病[30]

多囊卵巢綜合症症狀的嚴重程度似乎主要取決於肥胖症[7][15][31]

多囊卵巢綜合症可視為一種代謝疾病,其的部分症狀為「可逆的」。 即便多囊卵巢綜合症由28個症狀組成,但其仍被視為一種婦科疾病。

即使多囊卵巢綜合症的病名表明卵巢為該疾病的病理核心,但是囊腫為一種症況而非病因。就算兩個卵巢被摘除,部分多囊卵巢綜合症的症狀仍會持續下去,其症狀在不存在囊種的狀況下仍有可能出現。自從1935年Stein和Leventhal首次描述以來,診斷、症狀和致病因素的標準仍為爭議的主題之一。因為卵巢為首要受影響的器官,婦科學者們通常視其為一種婦科疾病。然而,近年來許多觀察顯示多囊性卵巢為一種多重系統性失調疾病,主要問題源自於下視丘賀爾蒙調節失調 ,許多器官也與此調節有關。多囊性卵巢這個名稱源自於超聲波診斷之影像。多囊性卵巢綜合症的症狀非常多變,且只有約百分之15的患者可由超音波影像看出其卵巢中有囊腫。[32]

環境

[编辑]

多囊卵巢綜合症可能與產前經期、表觀遺傳學因子、環境影響(尤其是工業中產生的內分泌干擾素[33]雙酚A與特定藥物)及肥胖比例增加有關,上述任何原因之一都有可能是使病症惡化的緣由。[33][34][35][36][37][38][39]

發病機制

[编辑]

多囊性卵巢的發展會刺激卵巢持續製造分泌過量的雄性激素,尤其是睪固酮,通常會伴隨著以下的其中一個症狀或是兩者皆有(幾乎肯定其具有遺傳易受性[26]):

多囊性卵巢綜合症因其在超音波診斷中普遍可見的大量卵巢囊腫聞名。這些「囊腫」其實是未成熟的濾泡而非囊腫。這些濾泡由初級濾泡發育而成, 但在空腔濾泡期早期因為卵巢功能停止發育,這些濾泡會出現在卵巢周邊,在超音波檢驗的影像中看起來像成串的珍珠[來源請求]

患有多囊性卵巢症候群的婦女因為下視丘釋放促性腺激素釋放激素的頻率增加,導致黃體成長激素與濾泡刺激素的比值升高[40]

大多數具有PCOS的婦女具有胰島素抵抗或肥胖的症狀。 他們的胰島素濃度異常的提高導致「下丘腦-垂體-卵巢軸英语Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis」區域中的異常並引起PCOS的症狀。高胰島素血症提高GnRH的釋放頻率、黃體成長激素量多過濾泡刺激素,因而佔了主導地位、增加卵巢雄激素的產生、減少濾泡的成熟並減少SHBG的作用[18]。此外,過多的胰島素會透過PI3K英语PI3K調高17α羥化酶的活性,而17α羥化酶的活性也和雄激素前体的合成有關[41],因此過多胰島素的幾個效果都會提高PCOS的風險[42]。胰島素抵抗是女性常見的情形,在正常體重的女性及體重過重的女性都可能會出現[10][15][21]

診斷

[编辑]

並不是每一個多囊卵巢綜合症的病人都有出現多囊卵巢的症狀,也並非所有卵巢曩腫的病患都有多囊卵巢綜合症的症狀;雖然骨盆超聲波是主要的診斷工具,但也並不是唯一個診斷工具[43]。雖然該綜合徵與廣泛的症狀相關,最直接的診斷方法是使用鹿特丹診斷標準。

2023 年 8 月,Human Reproduction[44]Fertility and Sterility[45]The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism[46]European Journal of Endocrinology[47] 同步发表的《2023 年国际基于循证医学证据多囊卵巢综合征指南》 是目前的诊断指南。

定義

[编辑]

以下是兩種常見的定義:

美國國立衛生研究院診斷標準

[编辑]
在1990年,由國立衛生研究院 (美國)/ 美國國家兒童健康與人類發展中心英语NICHD贊助的協商研討會提出,如果一個人具有以下所有症狀,表示該人罹患多囊卵巢綜合症[48]:
  1. 出現排卵不規則的症狀
  2. 出現雄性素過剩英语androgen excess的症狀 (臨床上或生化上)
  3. 排除可能導致月經不規則和雄激素過多的其他疾病導致上述症狀的產生

鹿特丹診斷標準(Rotterdam diagnostic criteria)

[编辑]
2003年,鹿特丹 ESHRE / ASRM贊助的共識研討會提出,在沒有可能導致這些發現的其他實體的情況下,如果滿足3項標準中的任何二項,多囊卵巢就會出現[15][49][50]
  1. 出現排卵不規則無排卵英语anovulation或是兩者同時出現
  2. 具有雄性激素過剩英语androgen excess症狀
  3. 具有多囊卵巢症狀 (藉由 婦科超聲波英语gynecologic ultrasound檢查)

鹿特丹診斷標準涵蓋更廣泛的有症狀婦女,最顯著的部分是在於並未有雄性素過剩的婦女也被列入在其中。 評論家認為,從研究雄激素過多的婦女獲得的結果不一定可以推廣到給沒有雄激素過剩的婦女身上[51][52]

Androgen Excess PCOS Society
2006年,Androgen Excess PCOS Society提出了一套嚴謹診斷標準[15]
  1. 具有雄性激素過剩症狀
  2. 出現排卵不規則、無排卵或多囊卵巢症狀,亦或同時出現上述症狀
  3. 排除會引起過量雄激素活性的其他因素*

鑑別診斷

[编辑]

應該調查其他原因,例如甲狀腺機能低下症先天性腎上腺增生症(21-羥化酶缺乏症)、庫興氏症候群高乳促素血症英语hyperprolactinemia、雄激素分泌性腫瘤以及其他垂體或腎上腺疾病。[15][50]<[53]

處置

[编辑]

多囊卵巢綜合症的主要治疗方法包括:調整生活方式及藥物治療[54]

主要治療目標大致可分為下列四點:

目前現行療法中何為最佳治療方式仍是相當大的爭議,其中一個主要原因是因為缺乏比較不同療程療效的大規模臨床試驗。樣本往往是不太可靠英语Sampling error因此可能產生矛盾不可靠的結果。

有助於減輕體重或降低胰島素抗性的一般干預措施對於改善多囊卵巢綜合症的症狀有益,體重增加與胰島素抗性被視為是潛在的病因。由於多囊卵巢綜合症有可能會引起嚴重的情緒障礙,因此適當的精神支持對於病情可能是有益的。[55]

飲食

[编辑]

當多囊卵巢綜合癥與超重或肥胖有關時,減肥是恢復規律月經的最有效方法,但是很多女性很難達到並維持顯著的體重減輕。2013年的科學評估發現,減肥,與飲食組成無關,可改善重量和體重組成、懷孕率英语Pregnancy rate、月經規律、排卵、雄激素過高、胰島素抗性、脂質以及生活質量。[56]即使如此,從水果、蔬菜和全穀物中獲得大部分碳水化合物的低GI飲食英语low GI diet,相對於營養素均衡的健康飲食,仍能更好的改善月經規律。[56]

維生素D缺乏症可能在代謝症候群的發展中發揮一定的作用,故遵照醫囑補充缺乏的營養素是極為重要的[57][58]。然而,2015年的系統評估並沒有發現維生素D具有減輕多囊卵巢綜合症中代謝和激素失調情況的證據。[59]截至2012年,使用營養補充品預防多囊卵巢綜合症患者代謝缺陷的干預措施已經在小型、不受控制的和非隨機的臨床試驗中進行了測試;而所得數據不足以推薦使用。[60]

藥物

[编辑]

用於治療多囊卵巢綜合症的藥物有避孕藥二甲雙胍。口服避孕藥能增加體內性激素结合球蛋白生產,促進游離睾酮的結合。這減少了由高睾丸激素引起的多毛症狀,並調節恢復正常月經週期。二甲雙胍是在2型糖尿病中常用的一種降低胰島素排斥的藥物,並在英國,美國,澳大利亞和歐盟標示外使用英语Off-label use用來治療多囊卵巢綜合症中的胰島素排斥。在許多情況下,二甲雙胍也能協助卵巢功能並恢復正常排卵[18][57][61]螺內酯可用於其抗雄激素作用,而二氟甲基鳥氨酸則可用於減少面部毛髮。較新的胰島素抵抗藥物噻唑烷二酮(格列酮)英语thiazolidinedione顯示出與二甲雙胍相當的功效,但二甲雙胍具有更輕微的副作用[62][63]英國國家健康與照顧卓越研究院英语National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence在2004年提出建議,當其他治療未能產生效果時,將給予給予BMI高於25的病患服用二甲雙胍[64][65]。二甲雙胍在每種類型的多囊卵巢綜合症中可能並非有效的,因此對於是否應該用作一般一線治療存在一些分歧[66]羟甲基戊二酸单酰辅酶A还原酶抑制剂在治療潛在代謝綜合徵方面的應用尚不清楚[67]

多囊卵巢綜合症可能導致難以受孕,因為它會導致不規律排卵。試圖懷孕時,會使用誘導生育的藥物包括排卵誘導劑克羅米酚或 脈衝亮丙瑞林 。 二甲雙胍與克羅米酚組合使用時,可提高生殖治療的療效。[68]二甲雙胍被認為在懷孕期間使用是安全的,於美國的懷孕分級為B[69]。2014年的評論得出結論,在三個月內使用二甲雙胍治療的女性並不會增加產下先天性障礙嬰兒的風險[70]

不孕症

[编辑]

多毛症及痤瘡

[编辑]

月經不規律

[编辑]

如果病患目前沒有懷孕需求,可以藉由服用複合口服避孕藥來調節月經紊亂[18][57]。 調理生理週期的主要目的是讓女性生活上比較方便,改善女性對於生理週期與自己的感受;若能自然規律行經,便不需藉由服藥使生理週期變得規律。


如果不期望定期的月經週期,則不一定需要不規則循環的治療。大多數專家說,如果至少每三個月發生一次月經,那麼子宮內膜就會經常流下來,以防止增加子宮內膜異常或癌症的風險。[71] 如果月經頻率極低或根本沒來,推薦使用某些形式的助孕素。[72] 其中一種替代方案即是定期服用一次口服助孕素(例如,每三個月)以誘發可預測的月經出血。[18]

替代藥物

[编辑]

一篇2017年發表的科學論文指出肌醇與D-手性肌醇可能具有調節生理週期與改善排卵的功效,然而目前仍然缺乏其是否能影響懷孕機率的證據,一篇於2011年發表的綜述文章亦指出目前缺乏足夠的證據去證明D-手性肌醇具有任何功效。 [73][74] [75] 兩篇分別發表於2012年與2017年的綜述文章點出補充肌醇似乎能夠有效改善多囊性卵巢綜合症的幾種激素紊亂,且能降低採取體外受精之女性的促性腺激素釋放激素濃度與改善其卵巢過度刺激症的發作時間。[76][77] [78] 對於針灸是否能改善多囊性卵巢綜合症方面,目前仍然缺乏足夠的科學證據來證實其效用。[79][80]

預測

[编辑]

多囊性卵巢綜合症的高風險伴隨症狀:

早期診斷和治療可能會降低其中一些風險,如II型糖尿病和心臟病。

卵巢癌和乳腺癌的風險總體上沒有顯著增加。[81]

流行病學

[编辑]

多囊性卵巢綜合症的盛行率受到診斷標準的影響。 世界衛生組織在2010年時估計全世界約有一億一千六百萬名女性(約3.4%的女性)受多囊性卵巢綜合症影響。[92]一份以鹿特丹診斷診斷指引為準的多囊性卵巢綜合症流行率社區研究發現,大約有百分之18的女性患有多囊性卵巢,而這些患者約有百分之70先前並未被確診出患有多囊性卵巢綜合症。[15]

約有百分之8到25的一般女性在超音波診斷中會看到有多囊性卵巢。[93][94][95][96]服用口服避孕藥的女性中,有14%發現有多囊性卵巢[94]。卵巢囊腫也是使用釋放黃體素子宮環後常見的副作用。[97]

歷史

[编辑]

這種症狀最早在1935年由美國婦科醫生Irving F. Stein, Sr.與Michael L. Leventhal首次描述,其原始名稱為斯-李二氏症[43][48]

目前已知最早的多囊卵巢綜合症記錄,是1721年間源自義大利的記錄[17]。關於卵巢囊腫的相關變化描述最早出現在1844年[17]

社會及文化

[编辑]

經費

[编辑]

2005年在美國有約四百萬起多囊卵巢綜合症的病例,其醫療費用有43.6億美元[98]。2016年國立衛生研究院的研究預算有323億美元,其中有0.1%用在多囊卵巢綜合症的研究上[99]

名稱

[编辑]

這種綜合徵的其他名稱包括多囊卵巢疾病、功能性卵巢雄激素過多症、卵巢濾泡膜細胞增殖英语Hyperthecosis、硬皮囊性卵巢綜合徵和斯-李二氏症。斯-李二氏症為其原始名稱,現在使用這個名稱都僅限於具有不孕症多毛症、卵巢有多發囊狀腫大的閉經女性[43]

這種疾病的名稱「多囊卵巢綜合症」是因為在醫學影像中可見多囊性卵巢而得此稱[18]。多囊性卵巢在靠近卵巢表面處有極大量正在發育的卵子,其在超音波中可用肉眼鑑別[43],看起來像許多小囊腫[100]

參見

[编辑]

參考文獻

[编辑]
  1. ^ Kollmann M, Martins WP, Raine-Fenning N. Terms and thresholds for the ultrasound evaluation of the ovaries in women with hyperandrogenic anovulation. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2014, 20 (3): 463–4. PMID 24516084. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmu005. 
  2. ^ USMLE-Rx. MedIQ Learning, LLC. 2014. Stein-Leventhal syndrome, also known as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), is a disorder characterized by hirsutism, obesity, and amenorrhea because of luteinizing hormone-resistant cystic ovaries. 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 What are the symptoms of PCOS? (05/23/2013). www.nichd.nih.gov. [13 March 2015]. (原始内容存档于2015-03-03). 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Condition Information. US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. 2013-05-23 [13 March 2015]. (原始内容存档于2015-03-04). 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 http://www.nichd.nih.gov. Is there a cure for PCOS?. 2013-05-23 [13 March 2015]. (原始内容存档于2015-04-05).  外部链接存在于|title= (帮助)
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 De Leo V, Musacchio MC, Cappelli V, Massaro MG, Morgante G, Petraglia F. Genetic, hormonal and metabolic aspects of PCOS: an update. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology : RB&E (Review). 2016, 14 (1): 38. PMC 4947298可免费查阅. PMID 27423183. doi:10.1186/s12958-016-0173-x. 
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Kandarakis H, Legro RS. The role of genes and environment in the etiology of PCOS. Endocrine. 2006, 30 (1): 19–26. PMID 17185788. doi:10.1385/ENDO:30:1:19. 
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 8.2 How many people are affected or at risk for PCOS?. http://www.nichd.nih.gov. 2013-05-23 [13 March 2015]. (原始内容存档于2015-03-04).  外部链接存在于|website= (帮助)
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 How do health care providers diagnose PCOS?. http://www.nichd.nih.gov/. 2013-05-23 [13 March 2015]. (原始内容存档于2015-04-02). 
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Mortada R, Williams T. Metabolic Syndrome: Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. FP Essentials (Review). 2015, 435: 30–42. PMID 26280343. 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Giallauria F, Palomba S, Vigorito C, Tafuri MG, Colao A, Lombardi G, Orio F. Androgens in polycystic ovary syndrome: the role of exercise and diet. Seminars in Reproductive Medicine (Review). 2009, 27 (4): 306–15. PMID 19530064. doi:10.1055/s-0029-1225258. 
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 Treatments to Relieve Symptoms of PCOS. http://www.nichd.nih.gov/. 2014-07-14 [13 March 2015]. (原始内容存档于2015-04-02). 
  13. ^ editor, Lubna Pal,. Diagnostic Criteria and Epidemiology of PCOS. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Current and Emerging Concepts.. Dordrecht: Springer. 2013: 7 [2017-10-28]. ISBN 9781461483946. (原始内容存档于2020-02-01). 
  14. ^ Treatments for Infertility Resulting from PCOS. http://www.nichd.nih.gov/. 2014-07-14 [13 March 2015]. (原始内容存档于2015-04-02). 
  15. ^ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 Teede H, Deeks A, Moran L. Polycystic ovary syndrome: a complex condition with psychological, reproductive and metabolic manifestations that impacts on health across the lifespan. BMC Med. 2010, 8 (1): 41. PMC 2909929可免费查阅. PMID 20591140. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-8-41. 
  16. ^ Diagnostic Criteria and Epidemiology of PCOS; Heather R. Burks and Robert A. Wild; Book Title: Polycystic Ovary Syndrome; Subtitle: Current and Emerging Concepts; Part I; Pages: pp 03-10; Copyright: 2014; DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-8394-6_17; Print ISBN 978-1-4614-8393-9; Online ISBN 978-1-4614-8394-6; Publisher: Springer New York. (http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4614-8394-6_17页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)).
  17. ^ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Kovacs, Gabor T.; Norman, Robert. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Cambridge University Press. 2007-02-22: 4 [29 March 2013]. ISBN 9781139462037. (原始内容存档于2016-04-19). 
  18. ^ 18.00 18.01 18.02 18.03 18.04 18.05 18.06 18.07 18.08 18.09 18.10 18.11 18.12 18.13 18.14 18.15 18.16 18.17 18.18 Mayo Clinic Staff. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome – All. MayoClinic.com. Mayo Clinic. 4 April 2011 [15 November 2011]. (原始内容存档于2013-05-30). 
  19. ^ Christine Cortet-Rudelli; Didier Dewailly. Diagnosis of Hyperandrogenism in Female Adolescents. Hyperandrogenism in Adolescent Girls. Armenian Health Network, Health.am. Sep 21, 2006 [2006-11-21]. (原始内容存档于2007-09-30). 
  20. ^ Huang A, Brennan K, Azziz R. Prevalence of hyperandrogenemia in the polycystic ovary syndrome diagnosed by the National Institutes of Health 1990 criteria. Fertil. Steril. 2010, 93 (6): 1938–41. PMC 2859983可免费查阅. PMID 19249030. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.138. 
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 Nafiye Y, Sevtap K, Muammer D, Emre O, Senol K, Leyla M. The effect of serum and intrafollicular insulin resistance parameters and homocysteine levels of nonobese, nonhyperandrogenemic polycystic ovary syndrome patients on in vitro fertilization outcome. Fertil. Steril. 2010, 93 (6): 1864–9. PMID 19171332. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.024. 
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 Page 836 (Section:Polycystic ovary syndrome) in: Fauser BC, Diedrich K, Bouchard P, Domínguez F, Matzuk M, Franks S, Hamamah S, Simón C, Devroey P, Ezcurra D, Howles CM. Contemporary genetic technologies and female reproduction. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2011, 17 (6): 829–47. PMC 3191938可免费查阅. PMID 21896560. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmr033. 
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Legro RS, Strauss JF. Molecular progress in infertility: polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertil. Steril. 2002, 78 (3): 569–76. PMID 12215335. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(02)03275-2. 
  24. ^ Filippou, P; Homburg, R. Is foetal hyperexposure to androgens a cause of PCOS?. Human Reproduction Update. 1 July 2017, 23 (4): 421–432. PMID 28531286. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmx013. 
  25. ^ 25.0 25.1 Crosignani PG, Nicolosi AE. Polycystic ovarian disease: heritability and heterogeneity. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2001, 7 (1): 3–7. PMID 11212071. doi:10.1093/humupd/7.1.3. 
  26. ^ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Strauss JF. Some new thoughts on the pathophysiology and genetics of polycystic ovary syndrome. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2003, 997: 42–8. Bibcode:2003NYASA.997...42S. PMID 14644808. doi:10.1196/annals.1290.005. 
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 Ada Hamosh. POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME 1; PCOS1. OMIM. McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. 12 September 2011 [15 November 2011]. (原始内容存档于2015-07-16). 
  28. ^ Amato P, Simpson JL. The genetics of polycystic ovary syndrome. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2004, 18 (5): 707–18. PMID 15380142. doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2004.05.002. 
  29. ^ Draper; et al. Mutations in the genes encoding 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 and hexose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase interact to cause cortisone reductase deficiency. Nature Genetics. 2003, 34: 434–439. PMID 12858176. doi:10.1038/ng1214. 
  30. ^ Ehrmann David A. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2005, 352: 1223–1236. doi:10.1056/NEJMra041536. 
  31. ^ Faghfoori Z, Fazelian S, Shadnoush M, Goodarzi R. Nutritional management in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: A review study. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome (Review). 2017. PMID 28416368. doi:10.1016/j.dsx.2017.03.030. 
  32. ^ Dunaif A, Fauser BC. Renaming PCOS—a two-state solution. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2013, 98 (11): 4325–8. PMC 3816269可免费查阅. PMID 24009134. doi:10.1210/jc.2013-2040. 
  33. ^ 33.0 33.1 Palioura E, Diamanti-Kandarakis E. Industrial endocrine disruptors and polycystic ovary syndrome. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 2013, 36 (11): 1105–11. PMID 24445124. doi:10.1007/bf03346762. 
  34. ^ Hoeger KM. Developmental origins and future fate in PCOS. Semin. Reprod. Med. 2014, 32 (3): 157–158. PMID 24715509. doi:10.1055/s-0034-1371086. 
  35. ^ Harden CL. Polycystic ovaries and polycystic ovary syndrome in epilepsy: evidence for neurogonadal disease. Epilepsy Curr. 2005, 5 (4): 142–6. PMC 1198730可免费查阅. PMID 16151523. doi:10.1111/j.1535-7511.2005.00039.x. 
  36. ^ Rasgon N. The relationship between polycystic ovary syndrome and antiepileptic drugs: a review of the evidence. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2004, 24 (3): 322–34. PMID 15118487. doi:10.1097/01.jcp.0000125745.60149.c6. 
  37. ^ Hu X, Wang J, Dong W, Fang Q, Hu L, Liu C. A meta-analysis of polycystic ovary syndrome in women taking valproate for epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 2011, 97 (1–2): 73–82. PMID 21820873. doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2011.07.006. 
  38. ^ Abbott DH, Barnett DK, Bruns CM, Dumesic DA. Androgen excess fetal programming of female reproduction: a developmental aetiology for polycystic ovary syndrome?. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2005, 11 (4): 357–74. PMID 15941725. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmi013. 
  39. ^ Rutkowska A, Rachoń D. Bisphenol A (BPA) and its potential role in the pathogenesis of the polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Gynecol. Endocrinol. 2014, 30 (4): 260–5. PMID 24397396. doi:10.3109/09513590.2013.871517. 
  40. ^ Lewandowski KC, Cajdler-Łuba A, Salata I, Bieńkiewicz M, Lewiński A. The utility of the gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) test in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Endokrynol Pol. 2011, 62 (2): 120–8. PMID 21528473. 
  41. ^ Munir, Iqbal; Yen, Hui-Wen; Geller, David H.; Torbati, Donna; Bierden, Rebecca M.; Weitsman, Stacy R.; Agarwal, Sanjay K.; Magoffin, Denis A. Insulin Augmentation of 17α-Hydroxylase Activity Is Mediated by Phosphatidyl Inositol 3-Kinase But Not Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase-1/2 in Human Ovarian Theca Cells. Endocrinology. January 2004, 145 (1): 175–183. doi:10.1210/en.2003-0329. 
  42. ^ Diamanti-Kandarakis, Evanthia; Dunaif, Andrea. Insulin Resistance and the Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Revisited: An Update on Mechanisms and Implications. Endocrine Reviews. December 2012, 33 (6): 981–1030. PMID 23065822. doi:10.1210/er.2011-1034. 
  43. ^ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 Marrinan, Greg. Lin, Eugene C , 编. Imaging in Polycystic Ovary Disease. eMedicine. eMedicine. 20 April 2011 [19 November 2011]. (原始内容存档于2011-11-08). 
  44. ^ Teede, Helena J; Tay, Chau Thien; Laven, Joop; Dokras, Anuja; Moran, Lisa J; Piltonen, Terhi T; Costello, Michael F; Boivin, Jacky; Redman, Leanne M; Boyle, Jacqueline A; Norman, Robert J. Recommendations from the 2023 International Evidence-based Guideline for the Assessment and Management of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Human Reproduction. 2023-09-05, 38 (9) [2024-02-06]. ISSN 0268-1161. PMC 10477934可免费查阅. PMID 37580037. doi:10.1093/humrep/dead156. (原始内容存档于2024-07-31) (英语). 
  45. ^ Teede, Helena J.; Tay, Chau Thien; Laven, Joop; Dokras, Anuja; Moran, Lisa J.; Piltonen, Terhi T.; Costello, Michael F.; Boivin, Jacky; M. Redman, Leanne; A. Boyle, Jacqueline; Norman, Robert.J. Recommendations from the 2023 International Evidence-based Guideline for the Assessment and Management of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Fertility and Sterility. 2023-10, 120 (4) [2024-02-06]. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2023.07.025. (原始内容存档于2024-06-19) (英语). 
  46. ^ Teede, Helena J; Tay, Chau Thien; Laven, Joop J E; Dokras, Anuja; Moran, Lisa J; Piltonen, Terhi T; Costello, Michael F; Boivin, Jacky; Redman, Leanne M; Boyle, Jacqueline A; Norman, Robert J. Recommendations From the 2023 International Evidence-based Guideline for the Assessment and Management of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2023-09-18, 108 (10) [2024-02-06]. ISSN 0021-972X. doi:10.1210/clinem/dgad463. (原始内容存档于2024-07-10) (英语). 
  47. ^ Teede, Helena J; Tay, Chau Thien; Laven, Joop J E; Dokras, Anuja; Moran, Lisa J; Piltonen, Terhi T; Costello, Michael F; Boivin, Jacky; Redman, Leanne M; Boyle, Jacqueline A; Norman, Robert J. Recommendations from the 2023 international evidence-based guideline for the assessment and management of polycystic ovary syndrome. European Journal of Endocrinology. 2023-08-02, 189 (2) [2024-02-06]. ISSN 0804-4643. doi:10.1093/ejendo/lvad096. (原始内容存档于2024-07-11) (英语). 
  48. ^ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 48.4 48.5 48.6 48.7 Richard Scott Lucidi. Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome. eMedicine. 25 October 2011 [19 November 2011]. (原始内容存档于2011-11-10). 
  49. ^ Azziz R. Controversy in clinical endocrinology: diagnosis of polycystic ovarian syndrome: the Rotterdam criteria are premature. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2006, 91 (3): 781–5. PMID 16418211. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-2153. 
  50. ^ 50.0 50.1 Revised 2003 consensus on diagnostic criteria and long-term health risks related to polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Hum. Reprod. 2004, 19 (1): 41–7. PMID 14688154. doi:10.1093/humrep/deh098. 
  51. ^ Carmina E. Diagnosis of polycystic ovary syndrome: from NIH criteria to ESHRE-ASRM guidelines. Minerva Ginecol. 2004, 56 (1): 1–6. PMID 14973405. 
  52. ^ Hart R, Hickey M, Franks S. Definitions, prevalence and symptoms of polycystic ovaries and polycystic ovary syndrome. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2004, 18 (5): 671–83. PMID 15380140. doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2004.05.001. 
  53. ^ Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome Workup. eMedicine. 25 October 2011 [19 November 2011]. (原始内容存档于2011-11-17). 
  54. ^ Legro, Richard S.; Arslanian, Silva A.; Ehrmann, David A.; Hoeger, Kathleen M.; Murad, M. Hassan; Pasquali, Renato; Welt, Corrine K.; Endocrine Society. Diagnosis and treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. December 2013, 98 (12): 4565–4592. ISSN 1945-7197. PMC 5399492可免费查阅. PMID 24151290. doi:10.1210/jc.2013-2350. 
  55. ^ Veltman-Verhulst SM, Boivin J, Eijkemans MJ, Fauser BJ. Emotional distress is a common risk in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 28 studies. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2012, 18 (6): 638–51. PMID 22824735. doi:10.1093/humupd/dms029. 
  56. ^ 56.0 56.1 Moran LJ, Ko H, Misso M, Marsh K, Noakes M, Talbot M, Frearson M, Thondan M, Stepto N, Teede HJ. Dietary composition in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review to inform evidence-based guidelines. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2013, 19 (5): 432. PMID 23727939. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmt015. 
  57. ^ 57.0 57.1 57.2 Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome Treatment & Management. eMedicine. 25 October 2011 [19 November 2011]. (原始内容存档于2011-11-16). 
  58. ^ Krul-Poel YH, Snackey C, Louwers Y, Lips P, Lambalk CB, Laven JS, Simsek S. The role of vitamin D in metabolic disturbances in polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review. European Journal of Endocrinology (Review). 2013, 169 (6): 853–65. PMID 24044903. doi:10.1530/EJE-13-0617. 
  59. ^ He C, Lin Z, Robb SW, Ezeamama AE. Serum Vitamin D Levels and Polycystic Ovary syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients (Meta-analysis). 2015, 7 (6): 4555–77. PMC 4488802可免费查阅. PMID 26061015. doi:10.3390/nu7064555. 
  60. ^ Huang, G; Coviello, A. Clinical update on screening, diagnosis and management of metabolic disorders and cardiovascular risk factors associated with polycystic ovary syndrome.. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity. December 2012, 19 (6): 512–9. PMID 23108199. doi:10.1097/med.0b013e32835a000e. 
  61. ^ Lord JM, Flight IH, Norman RJ. Metformin in polycystic ovary syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2003, 327 (7421): 951–3. PMC 259161可免费查阅. PMID 14576245. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7421.951. 
  62. ^ Li, X.-J.; Yu, Y.-X.; Liu, C.-Q.; Zhang, W.; Zhang, H.-J.; Yan, B.; Wang, L.-Y.; Yang, S.-Y.; Zhang, S.-H. Metformin vs thiazolidinediones for treatment of clinical, hormonal and metabolic characteristics of polycystic ovary syndrome: a meta-analysis. Clinical Endocrinology. 2011-03, 74 (3): 332–339. ISSN 1365-2265. PMID 21050251. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2010.03917.x. 
  63. ^ Grover, Anjali; Yialamas, Maria A. Metformin or thiazolidinedione therapy in PCOS?. Nature Reviews Endocrinology. 2011-03, 7 (3): 128– [2015-05-24]. ISSN 1759-5029. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2011.16. (原始内容存档于2015-07-22). 
  64. ^ National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence英语National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. 11 Clinical guideline 11 : Fertility: assessment and treatment for people with fertility problems . London, 2004.
  65. ^ Balen A. Metformin therapy for the management of infertility in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PDF). Scientific Advisory Committee Opinion Paper 13. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. December 2008 [2009-12-13]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2009-12-18). 
  66. ^ Leeman L, Acharya U. The use of metformin in the management of polycystic ovary syndrome and associated anovulatory infertility: the current evidence. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2009, 29 (6): 467–72. PMID 19697191. doi:10.1080/01443610902829414. 
  67. ^ Legro, RS; Arslanian, SA; Ehrmann, DA; Hoeger, KM; Murad, MH; Pasquali, R; Welt, CK; Endocrine, Society. Diagnosis and treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline.. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. December 2013, 98 (12): 4565–92. PMID 24151290. doi:10.1210/jc.2013-2350. 
  68. ^ Nestler, John E.; Jakubowicz, Daniela J.; Evans, William S.; Pasquali, Renato. Effects of Metformin on Spontaneous and Clomiphene-Induced Ovulation in the Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine. 1998-06-25, 338 (26): 1876–1880 [2015-05-24]. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 9637806. doi:10.1056/NEJM199806253382603. 
  69. ^ Feig, Denice S.; Moses, Robert G. Metformin Therapy During Pregnancy Good for the goose and good for the gosling too?. Diabetes Care. 2011-10-01, 34 (10): 2329–2330 [2015-05-24]. ISSN 0149-5992. PMC 3177745可免费查阅. PMID 21949224. doi:10.2337/dc11-1153. (原始内容存档于2015-05-25). 
  70. ^ Cassina M, Donà M, Di Gianantonio E, Litta P, Clementi M. First-trimester exposure to metformin and risk of birth defects: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2014, 20 (5): 656–69. PMID 24861556. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmu022. 
  71. ^ What are the health risks of PCOS?. Verity – PCOS Charity. Verity. 2011 [21 November 2011]. (原始内容存档于2012年12月25日). 
  72. ^ Richard Scott Lucidi. Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome Medication. eMedicine. 25 October 2011 [19 November 2011]. (原始内容存档于2011-11-14). 
  73. ^ Pundir, J; Psaroudakis, D; Savnur, P; Bhide, P; Sabatini, L; Teede, H; Coomarasamy, A; Thangaratinam, S. Inositol treatment of anovulation in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a meta-analysis of randomised trials. BJOG : An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 24 May 2017, 125 (3): 299–308. PMID 28544572. doi:10.1111/1471-0528.14754. 
  74. ^ Amoah-Arko, Afua; Evans, Meirion; Rees, Aled. Effects of myoinositol and D-chiro inositol on hyperandrogenism and ovulation in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review. Endocrine Abstracts. 2017-10-20 [2019-02-22]. doi:10.1530/endoabs.50.P363. (原始内容存档于2018-08-12). 
  75. ^ Galazis N, Galazi M, Atiomo W. D-Chiro-inositol and its significance in polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review. Gynecol. Endocrinol. 2011, 27 (4): 256–62. PMID 21142777. doi:10.3109/09513590.2010.538099. 
  76. ^ Unfer V, Carlomagno G, Dante G, Facchinetti F. Effects of myo-inositol in women with PCOS: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Gynecol. Endocrinol. 2012, 28 (7): 509–15. PMID 22296306. doi:10.3109/09513590.2011.650660. 
  77. ^ Zeng, Liuting; Yang, Kailin. Effectiveness of myoinositol for polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Endocrine. 2017-10-19, 59 (1): 30–38. ISSN 1355-008X. PMID 29052180. doi:10.1007/s12020-017-1442-y. 
  78. ^ Laganà, Antonio Simone; Vitagliano, Amerigo; Noventa, Marco; Ambrosini, Guido; D'Anna, Rosario. Myo-inositol supplementation reduces the amount of gonadotropins and length of ovarian stimulation in women undergoing IVF: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2018-08-04, 298 (4): 675–684. ISSN 1432-0711. PMID 30078122. doi:10.1007/s00404-018-4861-y. 
  79. ^ Lim, Chi Eung Danforn; Ng, Rachel W. C.; Xu, Ke; Cheng, Nga Chong Lisa; Xue, Charlie C. L.; Liu, Jian Ping; Chen, Nini. Acupuncture for polycystic ovarian syndrome. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016-05-03, (5): CD007689. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 27136291. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007689.pub3. 
  80. ^ Wu, XK; Stener-Victorin, E; Kuang, HY; Ma, HL; Gao, JS; Xie, LZ; Hou, LH; Hu, ZX; Shao, XG; Ge, J; Zhang, JF; Xue, HY; Xu, XF; Liang, RN; Ma, HX; Yang, HW; Li, WL; Huang, DM; Sun, Y; Hao, CF; Du, SM; Yang, ZW; Wang, X; Yan, Y; Chen, XH; Fu, P; Ding, CF; Gao, YQ; Zhou, ZM; Wang, CC; Wu, TX; Liu, JP; Ng, EHY; Legro, RS; Zhang, H; PCOSAct Study, Group. Effect of Acupuncture and Clomiphene in Chinese Women With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 27 June 2017, 317 (24): 2502–2514. PMC 5815063可免费查阅. PMID 28655015. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.7217. 
  81. ^ 81.0 81.1 Barry JA, Azizia MM, Hardiman PJ. Risk of endometrial, ovarian and breast cancer in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2014, 20 (5): 748–758. PMC 4326303可免费查阅. PMID 24688118. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmu012. 
  82. ^ New MI. Nonclassical congenital adrenal hyperplasia and the polycystic ovarian syndrome. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1993, 687: 193–205. Bibcode:1993NYASA.687..193N. PMID 8323173. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb43866.x. 
  83. ^ Hardiman P, Pillay OC, Atiomo W. Polycystic ovary syndrome and endometrial carcinoma. Lancet. 2003, 361 (9371): 1810–2. PMID 12781553. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13409-5. 
  84. ^ Mather KJ, Kwan F, Corenblum B. Hyperinsulinemia in polycystic ovary syndrome correlates with increased cardiovascular risk independent of obesity. Fertil. Steril. 2000, 73 (1): 150–6. PMID 10632431. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(99)00468-9. 
  85. ^ Moran LJ, Misso ML, Wild RA, Norman RJ. Impaired glucose tolerance, type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome in polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2010, 16 (4): 347–63. PMID 20159883. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmq001. 
  86. ^ Barry JA, Kuczmierczyk AR, Hardiman PJ. Anxiety and depression in polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. 2011, 26 (9): 2442–51. PMID 21725075. doi:10.1093/humrep/der197. 
  87. ^ Rocha MP, Maranhão RC, Seydell TM, Barcellos CR, Baracat EC, Hayashida SA, Bydlowski SP, Marcondes JA. Metabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and lipid transfer to high-density lipoprotein in young obese and normal-weight patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertil. Steril. 2010, 93 (6): 1948–56. PMID 19765700. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.044. 
  88. ^ de Groot PC, Dekkers OM, Romijn JA, Dieben SW, Helmerhorst FM. PCOS, coronary heart disease, stroke and the influence of obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2011, 17 (4): 495–500. PMID 21335359. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmr001. 
  89. ^ Goldenberg N, Glueck C. Medical therapy in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome before and during pregnancy and lactation. Minerva Ginecol. 2008, 60 (1): 63–75. PMID 18277353. 
  90. ^ Boomsma CM, Fauser BC, Macklon NS. Pregnancy complications in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Semin. Reprod. Med. 2008, 26 (1): 072–084. PMID 18181085. doi:10.1055/s-2007-992927. 
  91. ^ Kachuei M, Jafari F, Kachuei A, Keshteli AH. Prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2012, 285 (3): 853–6. PMID 21866332. doi:10.1007/s00404-011-2040-5. 
  92. ^ Vos T, Flaxman AD, et al. Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet. 2012, 380 (9859): 2163–96. PMID 23245607. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61729-2. 
  93. ^ Polson DW, Adams J, Wadsworth J, Franks S. Polycystic ovaries—a common finding in normal women. Lancet. 1988, 1 (8590): 870–2. PMID 2895373. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(88)91612-1. 
  94. ^ 94.0 94.1 Clayton RN, Ogden V, Hodgkinson J, Worswick L, Rodin DA, Dyer S, Meade TW. How common are polycystic ovaries in normal women and what is their significance for the fertility of the population?. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf). 1992, 37 (2): 127–34. PMID 1395063. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.1992.tb02296.x. 
  95. ^ Farquhar CM, Birdsall M, Manning P, Mitchell JM, France JT. The prevalence of polycystic ovaries on ultrasound scanning in a population of randomly selected women. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 1994, 34 (1): 67–72. PMID 8053879. doi:10.1111/j.1479-828X.1994.tb01041.x. 
  96. ^ van Santbrink EJ, Hop WC, Fauser BC. Classification of normogonadotropic infertility: polycystic ovaries diagnosed by ultrasound versus endocrine characteristics of polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertil. Steril. 1997, 67 (3): 452–8. PMID 9091329. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(97)80068-4. 
  97. ^ Hardeman J, Weiss BD. Intrauterine devices: an update.. Am Fam Physician. 2014, 89 (6): 445–50. PMID 24695563. 
  98. ^ Azziz, Ricardo; Marin, Catherine; Hoq, Lalima; Badamgarav, Enkhe; Song, Paul. Health Care-Related Economic Burden of the Polycystic Ovary Syndrome during the Reproductive Life Span. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1 August 2005, 90 (8): 4650–4658 [3 December 2018]. PMID 15944216. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-0628. (原始内容存档于2018-12-04). 
  99. ^ RCDC Estimates of Funding for Various Research, Condition, and Disease Categories (RCDC). NIH. NIH. [3 December 2018]. (原始内容存档于2019-02-28). 
  100. ^ What is Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)?. Verity – PCOS Charity. Verity. 2011 [21 November 2011]. (原始内容存档于2012年12月24日).